Speaking a foreign language can evoke a range of emotions in language learners, from anxiety and fear to relaxation and confidence. The general atmosphere in the classroom can either help learners build confidence and encourage them to speak freely, or it can exacerbate their anxiety, hindering their ability to communicate. A student who is apprehensive about speaking cannot improve their oral skills, whereas a more confident student is likely to gain fluency much faster.

 

How can teachers create an encouraging and inspiring atmosphere for all learners? What strategies can be employed to build students’ confidence and trust? How can a classroom be transformed into a safe space, where making mistakes is acceptable? What role does active listening play, and how can teachers effectively impart these skills to students? How can we help students gain the confidence to speak in a second language? Additionally, how does motivation influence these dynamics?

 

This study aims to discuss how encouragement, trust, and active listening in classroom settings can assist second language learners in developing effective communication skills.

 

Psychological Perspective of Communication Learning

 

Several foundational psychological theories provide insight into language acquisition. This paper discusses the sociocultural theory, interactionist theory, and the affective filter hypothesis. Each of these theories offers valuable perspectives on the psychological needs of students learning to speak a second language.

 

The sociocultural theory (Vygotsky 1978) emphasizes that language is acquired through social interactions and for communication purposes. This theory has direct implications for teaching communication skills in a second language. First, if social interactions are pivotal to language development, practicing communicative skills in the classroom should be prioritized, ideally through the simulation of authentic situations. Second, Vygotsky views learning as an active process wherein individuals engage with their cultural environment. Recognizing learners as active participants rather than passive recipient of knowledge means that teaching communication skills should empower students to take responsibility for their learning and to be active contributors in class. Additionally, acknowledging the role of culture is crucial; culturally sensitive teaching considers both the backgrounds of immigrant learners and the cultural context of the country in which they reside.

 

A well-known concept in Vygotsky’s work is the zone of proximal development, which posits that learners benefit most from challenges that are slightly beyond their current abilities. This principle is observable in classrooms daily: challenges that are too difficult can lead to frustration, while those that are too easy fail to facilitate new learning. When teaching communication skills in a second language, this notion should be carefully considered, with exercises becoming increasingly challenging as learners progress.

 

According to the interactionist theories (Long 1976, 1980), interaction with native speakers is an essential component of second language learning. Michael Long’s research indicates that communication skills acquired in the classroom may not always transfer effectively to real-life situations. Therefore, language teachers should be attuned to the actual communicative needs of their students and provide opportunities for practice those skills in the classroom as well.

 

Stephen D. Krashen (1982) discusses various psychological factors that influence the development of oral skills, encapsulated in the affective filter hypothesis. Key factors include motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety. According to this theory, these factors can create an “affective filter”, which can be visualized as an imaginary barrier in the learner’s mind. High motivation and self-confidence, coupled with low anxiety, correlate with a lower affective filter. When the imaginary wall in a student’s mind is low, they feel safe, allowing language acquisition to occur more easily. Consequently, they are also more likely to receive and be receptive to more second language input. Conversely, low motivation, low self-confidence, and high anxiety elevate the affective filter. As the affective filter rises, students may comprehend the input and understand what is being said, but the affective filter blocks cognitive processing, preventing effective learning. Therefore, teachers should strive to cultivate an environment that enhances students’ motivation, builds their speaking confidence, and alleviates anxiety.

 

As previously mentioned, motivation is critical in language learning. But how can it be fostered? Based on Deci and Ryan’s self-determination theory (1985, 2012), motivation hinges on three basic psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. In a classroom setting, meeting these needs entail allowing students some degree of choice regarding their learning (autonomy), ensuring that exercises are challenging enough but not too difficult (competence), and fostering a sense of belonging within the group (relatedness). These psychological needs are universally applicable, suggesting that teachers can support diverse groups of immigrant students by being mindful of these principles.

 

In conclusion, building confidence, alleviating anxiety, and fostering motivation can significantly enhance the process of learning to speak a new language. Creating a supportive environment in which mistakes are not feared encourages risk-taking, which is vital for practicing spoken language.

 

Empowering and Building Trust with Immigrant Students

 

For educators working with immigrant students, understanding and valuing their cultural and linguistic backgrounds is essential. Cultivating cultural sensitivity within the classroom not only fosters trust but also enhances student engagement.

 

Jim Cummins’ studies on students learning English as a second language (1987, 1991) provide insights into creating an educational climate where culturally and linguistically diverse students can feel empowered. Cummins proposes some key strategies[1] for teachers: (1) incorporating minority students’ languages and cultures into the curriculum, and (2) encouraging students to actively use the target language and generate their own knowledge.

 

In teaching communication skills in a second language, the incorporation of cultural and linguistic elements may involve encouraging students to compare and contrast their native language with the target language. In a school setting, this could also include celebrating important cultural holidays and exploring various cultures together. It is vital to view students’ cultures and native languages not as obstacles to overcome and to be replaced by the new culture and language but as assets that enrich the learning environment. For example, students could give presentations about their cultures, engage in group conversations where they share information about their cultures and backgrounds, or even teach some words or phrases from their native languages to their peers. Teachers should also demonstrate a genuine interest in students’ native languages and cultures. This can be achieved by asking thoughtful questions and encouraging conversations, such as “How is this celebrated in your culture?” or “How would you say this in your native language?”. By fostering an environment of mutual respect and curiosity, educators can create a classroom dynamic that values diversity and promotes inclusive learning.

 

An immigrant student in a language course is not a blank slate; they bring valuable experiences and strengths that can enhance their learning and empowerment. Teachers can create opportunities for students to actively engage their unique abilities in language learning (e.g., peer-teaching activities, personal storytelling).

 

Allowing students to become active generators of their own knowledge involves giving them control over their learning process (learning styles, goal-setting etc.) and encouraging collaboration. In the context of teaching second language communication, this means involving students in curriculum planning, encouraging the use of meaningful language in relevant contexts rather than emphasizing grammatical accuracy, and adopting the role of a facilitative teacher rather than a controlling one. Teachers should also encourage collaborative problem-solving among students to foster a supportive learning environment.

 

How can a classroom be transformed into a safe space for students from diverse backgrounds?

Geneva Gay’s work on multicultural education (1994, 2018) addresses culturally responsive teaching, which encompasses themes such as care, support and diversity in study materials. Gay emphasizes the importance of teachers being aware of their own attitudes, beliefs and expectations concerning various groups (e.g., ethnic or cultural) and encourages educators to empathize with their students’ experiences. Teachers should advocate for ethnically and racially diverse students; knowing that their teacher is an ally fosters a sense of safety. Furthermore, teachers can model desirable culturally diverse values and behaviours: they cannot expect students to respect and value diversity if they do not demonstrate these values themselves.

 

A critical aspect of culturally responsive teaching is making multicultural values visible in textbooks, study materials, and the overall curriculum (Gay 2018). The curriculum should reflect cultural and ethnic diversity. When teaching communication skills, this may involve crafting discussion questions that are open to diverse perspectives[2], incorporating students’ own cultures into exercises, encouraging them to share and learn about each other’s backgrounds, and selecting images that represent cultural and ethnic diversity.

 

In addition to ensuring that materials are culturally diverse, educators must exercise sensitivity in selecting topics for discussion, particularly with immigrant students. For example, while discussions about family may be appropriate for many, they could be too sensitive for those who have experienced loss or separation from family members. Teachers should ensure that all students can participate in discussions without discomfort. This does not mean avoiding sensitive topics altogether, but rather approaching them with care and creativity. For instance, when discussing family, students might create fictional families from pictures, explore the concept of family across cultures, or engage in word games using family-related vocabulary.

 

In addition to considering cultural and linguistic backgrounds, teachers should also be aware of individual factors that may impact learning[3]. For instance, immigrant students may have experienced traumatic events that could influence their learning process and their trust in authority figures. While it is neither possible or necessary for teachers to know every detail of a student’s background, recognizing that for example trauma is a complex issue that affects individuals differently is important. Maintaining an awareness that each student’s unique background can influence learning can help teachers build genuinely empathetic and supportive relationships with their students.

 

Strong teacher-student relationships positively influence learning outcomes. Research indicates that positive relationships between teachers and second language learners can enhance learning and overall well-being (Li 2022; Song et al. 2022). Moreover, teachers’ caring behaviours tend to increase students’ willingness to engage in conversation. To foster an atmosphere where students feel comfortable communicating in a second language, teachers should demonstrate genuine caring and concern for learners’ interests and feelings.

 

Other methods for cultivating a safe and trusting environment include consistency, empathy and respect for students’ perspectives. These perspectives collectively contribute to creating a safe learning space. In such an environment, students can make mistakes without fear of ridicule or judgment. When making mistakes is accepted, it also encourages active participation, thereby enhancing the learning experience.

 

Employing Active Listening in Class

 

The works of Carl Rogers, a pioneer of humanistic psychology, emphasize the importance of active listening in therapy and counseling. The core elements of active listening – acceptance, empathy, and understanding – are also highly effective in a culturally diverse classroom (Rogers 1942, 1951; Meyerhuber 2019). An active listener refrains from judging, making interpretations, or giving unsolicited advice. Instead, they listen attentively, respectfully and supportively. A key technique in active listening is mirroring, which involves using the speaker’s own wording to reflect back what was understood or to seek for clarification. In a classroom setting, this could be particularly beneficial for more timid students. Here is a fictional example[4] of a discussion between a teacher and a student, illustrating some principles of active listening:

 

Teacher: "How was your weekend, Maria? Did you do anything special?"

Maria: "Yes, my family celebrated Diwali. It’s a festival from my culture."

Teacher: "Diwali? That sounds wonderful! Can you tell me more about how your family celebrates it?"

Maria: "We light candles, called diyas, and decorate the house. We also eat special sweets and pray."

Teacher: "So, you light diyas, decorate your home, enjoy sweets, and have a time of prayer. That sounds beautiful. What kind of sweets do you usually make?"

Maria: "My mom makes something called gulab jamun. It’s very sweet and soaked in syrup."

Teacher: "Gulab jamun… I’ve heard of that before! It sounds delicious. Do you help your mom make it?"

Maria: "Sometimes, but I’m not very good at cooking."

Teacher: "That’s okay! Trying is the first step. Maybe one day you’ll be as good as your mom. It must be nice to celebrate such a special tradition together as a family."

Maria: "Yes, it is. It reminds us of home."

Teacher: "That’s so important, Maria. Thank you for sharing your Diwali traditions with me. I feel like I’ve learned something new today!"

 

This example shows the teacher mirroring Maria’s own wording and showing interest and respect. Some other active listening techniques include different kinds of clarifications and verifications, such as “So far, I have understood that…”, “Did I understand correctly that…?”, or “What did you mean by...?”.

 

Mirroring and other active listening techniques are particularly helpful for second-language learners. They can provide support and validation to the speaker. When used by teachers, students get direct feedback about what as been understood. Moreover, students can be taught to use the active listening techniques with each other as well. Learning these skills encourages all participants to give direct feedback about what has been understood.

 

This approach also helps build trust by creating a sense of acknowledgement and mutual respect. For example, a teacher can effectively use mirroring to reflect a student’s comment during a group discussion, demonstrating attentive listening. During a group discussion, a student may say, “I think people should read more books because they are exciting.” The teacher could mirror the student’s comment by saying: “So you think books are exciting and we should read more.” By restating the student’s idea, the teacher shows that they are listening carefully and valuing the student’s input, while also encouraging further discussion. It also gives the student the chance to clarify or expand on their thoughts. Furthermore, this method encourages other students to engage more openly, knowing that their voices are heard and respected. As a result, mirroring fosters an atmosphere of trust and inclusivity, where students feel comfortable expressing themselves without fear of judgment.

 

The overall benefits of active listening in the classroom include modelling attentive behaviours and validating student contributions. Using active listening as a method also helps students build confidence by showing that their ideas are valued.

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Teaching Trust, Active Listening, and Encouragement to Students

 

Psychological safety is not just something teachers should be aware of; it is something they should actively incorporate into the curriculum. A psychologically safe environment is foundational for all learning, including teaching trust, active listening and encouragement. Techniques and exercises such as collaborative projects, role-playing, pair work, and group discussions reinforce trust and active listening skills. Fostering peer-to-peer listening enhances both listening and speaking abilities. Teachers should also encourage students to offer constructive feedback and support to one another.

 

To reduce learners’ anxiety (the “affective filter”) teachers can minimize factors that contribute to classroom anxiety, such as a fear of error correction, embarrassment, isolation, or assignments that feel too challenging. A safer learning environment can be cultivated by addressing these anxieties. Motivation factors – autonomy, competence, and relatedness – should also be kept in mind when designing communication activities.

 

Active listening and trust can directly influence students’ oral proficiency and interpersonal communication. A responsive, empathetic classroom in which all students feel safe facilitates effective and meaningful language learning.

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SOURCES

 

Cummins, J. (1987). Empowering Minority Students, July 1987. Teacher Training Monograph Number 5. Teacher Training Project for Bilingual & English to Speakers of Other Languages Teachers.

 

Cummins, J. (1991). Empowering Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students with Learning Problems. ERIC Digest #E500.

 

Deci, E. L. & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic Motivation and Self-determination in Human Behavior. New York: Plenum Press.

 

Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2012). Self-Determination Theory. Handbook of theories of social psychology, 1 (20), 416-436.

 

Gay, G. (1994). At the Essence of Learning: Multicultural Education. Kappa Delta Pi.

 

Gay, G. (2018). Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, research, and practice. Teachers College Press. 3rd ed.

 

Krashen, S. D. (1982).  Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon Press.

Internet edition (2009):

https://www.sdkrashen.com/content/books/principles_and_practice.pdf

 

Li S. (2022). On the Role of Teacher-Student Rapport on English as a Foreign Language Students' Well-Being. Frontiers in psychology, 12, 822013. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.822013

 

Long, M. H. (1976). Encouraging Language Acquisition by Adults in a Formal Instructional Setting. ELT Documents (76/3).

 

Long, M. H. (1980). Input, interaction, and second language acquisition. University of California, Los Angeles.

 

Meyerhuber, S. (2019). ‘Active Listening’ as a Key Competence in Intercultural Communication Education. Journal of Linguistic and Intercultural Education, 91.

 

Rogers, C. R. (1942). Counseling and psychotherapy. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.

 

Rogers, C. R. (1951). Client-centered therapy. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.

 

Song L., Luo R. & Zhan Q (2022). Toward the Role of Teacher Caring and Teacher-Student Rapport in Predicting English as a Foreign Language Learners’ Willingness to Communicate in Second Language. Front. Psychol. 13:874522.

 

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

 

 

Online sources

 

https://www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html
 

https://sanako.com/8-leading-theories-in-second-language-acquisition

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